Comoros

Union des Comores
Union of the Comoros
الاتّحاد القمريّ
al-Ittiḥād al-Qamariyy
Motto: "Unité – Solidarité – Développement"  (French)
"Unity – Solidarity – Development"
Anthem: Udzima wa ya Masiwa  (Comorian)
"The Unity of the Islands"
Capital
(and largest city)		 Moroni
Official language(s) Comorian, Arabic, French
Demonym Comorian(s)[1]
Government Federal republic
 -  President Ahmed Abdallah M. Sambi
Independence from France 
 -  Date July 6, 1975 
Area
 -  Total 2,235 km2 (178th (excl. Mayotte))
863 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) negligible
Population
 -  2005 estimate 798,000 (159th)
 -  Density 275/km2 (25th)
712.2/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
 -  Total $772 million[2] 
 -  Per capita $1,159[2] 
GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate
 -  Total $532 million[2] 
 -  Per capita $798[2] 
HDI (2007) increase 0.576 (medium) (139th)
Currency Comorian franc (KMF)
Time zone EAT (UTC+3)
 -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+3)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .km
Calling code +269

The Comoros (pronounced /ˈkɒməroʊz/ ( listen); Arabic: جزر القمر‎, Juzur al-Qamar), officially the Union of the Comoros (French: Union des Comores, Arabic: الاتّحاد القمريّ‎, al-Ittiḥād al-Qamariyy) is an archipelago island nation in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa, on the northern end of the Mozambique Channel, between northeastern Mozambique and northwestern Madagascar. Other countries near to the Comoros are Tanzania to the northwest and the Seychelles to the northeast. The capital is Moroni on Grande Comore. At 1,862 km2 (719 sq mi) (excluding Mayotte),[3] the Comoros is the third-smallest African nation by area. With a population estimated at 798,000 (excluding Mayotte), it is the sixth-smallest African nation by population—although it has one of the highest population densities in Africa. Its name derives from the Arabic word القمر qamar ("moon").[4] The archipelago is notable for its diverse culture and history, as a nation formed at the crossroads of many civilizations. Though in the contested island of Mayotte the sole official language is French, the "Union of the Comoros" has three official languages: Comorian (Shikomor), Arabic and French.

The country officially consists of the four islands in the volcanic Comoros archipelago: northwestermost Grande Comore or Ngazidja, Mohéli or Mwali, Anjouan or Nzwani, and southeastermost Mayotte or Mahoré, as well as many smaller islands. However, the government of the Union of the Comoros (or its predecessors, since independence) has never administered the island of Mayotte, which France still administers as an overseas collectivity. Mayotte was the only island in the archipelago that voted against independence from France in 1974; the latter has vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions that would affirm Comorian sovereignty over the island.[5][6][7][8] In addition, a 29 March 2009 referendum on Mayotte's becoming an overseas department of France in 2011 was passed overwhelmingly by the people of Mayotte.

The "Union of the Comoros" is the only state to be a member of all of the following: African Union, Francophonie, Organisation of the Islamic Conference, Arab League (of which it is the southernmost member state), and Indian Ocean Commission. However, it has had a troubled history since independence in 1975, marked by numerous coups d'état. About half the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day.[9]

Contents

History

Precolonial inhabitation

The first human inhabitants of the Comoro Islands are thought to have been African and Austronesian settlers, travelling by boat. They settled there no later than the sixth century CE, the date of the earliest known archaeological site, found on Nzwani, though some sources speculate that settlement began as early as the first century.[10] The islands of Comoros became populated by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of Africa, the Persian Gulf, the Malay Archipelago, and Madagascar. Swahili settlers first reached the islands as a part of the greater Bantu expansion that took place in Africa throughout the first millennium.

Development of the Comoros is periodized into phases, beginning with Swahili influence and settlement in the Dembeni phase (ninth to tenth centuries), during which each island maintained a single, central village.[11] From the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries, trade with the island of Madagascar and merchants from the Middle East flourished, smaller villages emerged, and existing towns expanded. The citizens and historians of the Comoros state that early Arab settlements date to even before their known arrival to the archipelago, and Swahili historians frequently trace genealogies back to Arab ancestors who had travelled from Yemen and the ancient kingdom of Saba' in Eden (thought to be the biblical Eden), even though people are unsure if this is true.

Arab colonization

Arab merchants first brought Arab Islamic influence to the islands. One most likely fact is that Arabs traded for slaves in Africa, increasing the spread and dominance of Arab culture. As their religion gained hold, large mosques were constructed. The Comoro Islands, like other coastal areas in the region, were important stops in early Islamic trade routes frequented by Persians and Arabs. Despite its distance from the coast, Comoros is situated along the major sea route between Kilwa and Mozambique, an outlet for Zimbabwean gold.[12]

The Shirazi people traded along the coasts of East Africa, and the Middle East, establishing settlements and colonies in the archipelago.

Arab colonization in the region increased when nearby Zanzibar fell to Arab Omani rule, and Comorian culture, especially architecture and religion, also increasingly came under Arab imperial sway. Many rival sultanates colonized the area in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[13]

By the time Europeans showed interest in the Comoros, the dominant Arab cultural veneer of the islands led many to remind of the society's Arab colonial history at the expense of its native Swahili and African heritage. More recent western scholarship by Thomas Spear and Randall Pouwells emphasizes black African historical predominance over the diffusionist perspective.[14]

European contact and French colonization

An 1808 map refers to the islands as "Camora".
Sultan Said Ali bin Said Omar of Grande Comore (1897)

Portuguese explorers first visited the archipelago in 1505.

In 1793, Malagasy warriors from Madagascar first started raiding the islands for slaves, and later settled and seized control in many locations. France first established colonial rule in the Comoros in 1841. The first French colonists landed in Mayotte, and Andrian Tsouli, the Malagasy King of Mayotte, signed the Treaty of April 1841, which ceded the island to the French authorities.[15]

In 1886, Mohéli was placed under French protection by its Queen Salima Machimba. That same year, after consolidating his authority over all of Grande Comore, Sultan Said Ali agreed to French protection of his island, though he retained sovereignty until 1909. Also in 1909, Sultan Said Muhamed of Anjouan abdicated in favor of French rule. The Comoros (or Les Comores) was officially made a French colony in 1912, and the islands were placed under the administration of the French colonial governor general of Madagascar in 1914.[16]

The Comoros served as a way station for merchants sailing to the Far East and India until the opening of the Suez Canal significantly reduced traffic passing through the Mozambique Channel. The native commodities exported by the Comoros were coconuts, cattle and tortoiseshell. French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After its annexation, France converted Mayotte into a sugar plantation colony. The other islands were soon transformed as well, and the major crops of ylang-ylang, vanilla, coffee, cocoa bean, and sisal were introduced.[17]

Agreement was reached with France in 1973 for Comoros to become independent in 1978. The deputies of Mayotte abstained. Referenda were held on all four of the islands. Three voted for independence by large margins, while Mayotte voted against, and remains under French administration. On July 6, 1975, however, the Comorian parliament passed a unilateral resolution declaring independence. Ahmed Abdallah proclaimed the independence of the Comorian State (État comorien; دولة القمر) and became its first president.

Independence

The next 30 years were a period of political turmoil. On 3 August 1975, mercenary Bob Denard, with clandestine support from Jacques Foccart and the French government, removed president Ahmed Abdallah from office in an armed coup and replaced him with United National Front of the Comoros (UNF) member Prince Said Mohammed Jaffar. Months later, in January 1976, Jaffar was ousted in favor of his Minister of Defense Ali Soilih.[18]

At this time, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France in two referendums. The first, held in December 1974, won 63.8% support for maintaining ties with France, while the second, held in February 1976, confirmed that vote with an overwhelming 99.4%. The three remaining islands, ruled by President Soilih, instituted a number of socialist and isolationist policies that soon strained relations with France. On 13 May 1978, Bob Denard returned to overthrow President Soilih and reinstate Abdallah with the support of the French and South African governments. During Soilih's brief rule, he faced seven additional coup attempts until he was finally forced from office and killed.[18]

In contrast to Soilih, Abdallah's presidency was marked by authoritarian rule and increased adherence to traditional Islam[19] and the country was renamed the Federal and Islamic Republic of Comoros (République Fédérale Islamique des Comores; جمهورية القمر الإتحادية الإسلامية ). Abdallah continued as president until 1989 when, fearing a probable coup d'état, he signed a decree ordering the Presidential Guard, led by Bob Denard, to disarm the armed forces. Shortly after the signing of the decree, Abdallah was allegedly shot dead in his office by a disgruntled military officer, though later sources claim an antitank missile was launched into his bedroom and killed him.[20] Although Denard was also injured, it is suspected that Abdallah's killer was a soldier under his command.[21]

A few days later, Bob Denard was evacuated to South Africa by French paratroopers. Said Mohamed Djohar, Soilih's older half-brother, then became president, and served until September 1995, when Bob Denard returned and attempted another coup. This time France intervened with paratroopers and forced Denard to surrender.[22][23] The French removed Djohar to Reunion, and the Paris-backed Mohamed Taki Abdulkarim became president by election. He led the country from 1996, during a time of labor crises, government suppression, and secessionist conflicts, until his death November 1998. He was succeeded by Interim President Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde.[24]

The islands of Anjouan and Mohéli declared their independence from the Comoros in 1997, in an attempt to restore French rule. But France rejected their request, leading to bloody confrontations between federal troops and rebels.[25] In April 1999, Colonel Azali Assoumani, Army Chief of Staff, seized power in a bloodless coup, overthrowing the Interim President Massounde, citing weak leadership in the face of the crisis. This was the Comoros' 18th coup d'état since independence in 1975.[26] Azali, however, failed to consolidate power and reestablish control over the islands, which was the subject of international criticism. The African Union, under the auspices of President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa, imposed sanctions on Anjouan to help broker negotiations and effect reconciliation.[27][28] The official name of the country was changed to the Union of the Comoros and a new system of political autonomy was instituted for each island, plus a union government for the three islands was added.

Azali stepped down in 2002 to run in the democratic election of the President of the Comoros, which he won. Under ongoing international pressure, as a military ruler who had originally come to power by force, and was not always democratic while in office, Azali led the Comoros through constitutional changes that enabled new elections.[29] A Loi des compétences law was passed in early 2005 that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body, and is in the process of implementation. The elections in 2006 were won by Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, a Sunni Muslim cleric nicknamed the "Ayatollah" for his time spent studying Islam in Iran. Azali honored the election results, thus allowing the first peaceful and democratic exchange of power for the archipelago.[30]

Colonel Mohammed Bacar, a French-trained former gendarme, seized power as President in Anjouan in 2001. He staged a vote in June 2007 to confirm his leadership that was rejected as illegal by the Comoros federal government and the African Union. On March 25, 2008 hundreds of soldiers from the African Union and Comoros seized rebel-held Anjouan, generally welcomed by the population: there have been reports of hundreds, if not thousands, of people tortured during Bacar’s tenure.[31] Some rebels were killed and injured, but there are no official figures. At least 11 civilians were wounded. Some officials were imprisoned. Bacar fled in a speedboat to the French Indian Ocean territory of Mayotte to seek asylum. Anti-French protests followed in Comoros (see 2008 invasion of Anjouan).

Since independence from France, the Comoros experienced more than 20 coups or attempted coups.[32]

Geography

Map of Comoros

The Comoros is formed by Ngazidja (Grande Comore), Mwali (Mohéli), Nzwani (Anjouan), and Maore (Mayotte), the major islands in the Comoros Archipelago, as well as many minor islets. The islands are officially known by their Comorian language names, though international sources still use their French names (in parentheses). The capital and largest city, Moroni, is located on Ngazidja. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, in the Mozambique Channel, between the African coast (nearest to Mozambique and Tanzania) and Madagascar, with no land borders.

At 2,235 km2 (863 sq mi), it is one of the smallest countries in the world. The Comoros also has claim to 320 km2 (120 sq mi) of territorial seas. The interiors of the islands vary from steep mountains to low hills. The climate is generally tropical and mild, and the two major seasons are distinguishable by their relative raininess. The temperature reaches an average of 29–30 °C (84–86 °F) in March, the hottest month in the rainy season (called kashkazi, December to April), and an average low of 19 °C (66 °F) in the cool, dry season (kusi, May to November).[33] The islands are rarely subject to cyclones.

Ngazidja is the largest of the Comoros Archipelago, approximately equal in area to the other islands combined. It is also the most recent island, and therefore has rocky soil. The island's two volcanoes, Karthala (active) and La Grille (dormant), and the lack of good harbors are distinctive characteristics of its terrain. Mwali, with its capital at Fomboni, is the smallest of the four major islands. Nzwani, whose capital is Mutsamudu, has a distinctive triangular shape caused by three mountain chains, Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime, emanating from a central peak, Ntringi (1,575 m or 5,167 ft).

The oldest of the islands, Maore has the richest soil as well as good harbors and local fish populations, due to its ring of coral reefs. Dzaoudzi, the previous capital of all the colonial Comoros, is located on Pamanzi, (French: Petite-Terre), the largest islet of Maore. Maore's current capital is at Mamoudzou. The term Mayotte (or Maore) may also refer to the group of islands, of which the largest is known as Maore (French: Grande-Terre), and it includes Maore's surrounding islands, most notably Pamanzi (Petite-Terre).

Satellite view of Mount Karthala after a November 2005 eruption. Ash obscures the islands (outlined).

The islands of the Comoros Archipelago were formed by volcanic activity. Mount Karthala, an active shield volcano located on Ngazidja, is the country's highest point, at 2,361 m or 7,748 ft (2,362 m) It contains the Comoros' largest patch of its disappearing rainforest. Karthala is currently one of the most active volcanoes in the world, with a minor eruption in May 2006, and prior eruptions as recently as April 2005 and 1991. In the 2005 eruption, which lasted from April 17 to 19, 40,000 citizens were evacuated, and the crater lake in the volcano's 3 by 4 km (1.9 by 2.5 mi) caldera was destroyed.

The Comoros also lays claim to the Glorioso Islands, comprising Grande Glorieuse, Île du Lys, Wreck Rock, South Rock, Verte Rocks (three islets), and three unnamed islets, one of France's Îles Éparses or Îles éparses de l'océan indien (Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean) possessions. The Glorioso Islands were administered by the colonial Comoros before 1975, and are therefore sometimes considered part of the Comoros Archipelago. Banc du Geyser, a former island in the Comoros Archipelago, now submerged, is geographically located in the Îles Éparses, but was annexed by Madagascar in 1976 as an unclaimed territory. The Comoros now claims it as part of its exclusive economic zone.

The Comoros constitute an ecoregion in their own right, Comoros forests.

Government

Politics of the Union of the Comoros takes place in a framework of a federal presidential republic, whereby the President of the Comoros is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. The Constitution of the Union of the Comoros was ratified by referendum on December 23, 2001, and the islands' constitutions and executives were elected in the following months. It had previously been considered a military dictatorship, and the transfer of power from Azali Assoumani to Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi in May 2006 was the first peaceful transfer in Comorian history.

Executive power is exercised by the government. Federal legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The preamble of the constitution guarantees an Islamic inspiration in governance, a commitment to human rights, and several specific enumerated rights, democracy, "a common destiny" for all Comorians. Each of the islands (according to Title II of the Constitution) has a great amount of autonomy in the Union, including having their own constitutions (or Fundamental Law), president, and Parliament. The presidency and Assembly of the Union are distinct from each of the Islands' governments. The presidency of the Union rotates between the islands.[34] Anjouan holds the current presidency rotation, and so Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi is President of the Union; Mohéli and Ngazidja follow in four year terms.[35]

The Comorian legal system rests on Islamic law, an inherited French (Napoleonic code) legal code, and customary law (mila na ntsi). Village elders, kadis or civilian courts settle most disputes. The judiciary is independent of the legislative and the executive. The Supreme Court acts as a Constitutional Council in resolving constitutional questions and supervising presidential elections. As High Court of Justice, the Supreme Court also arbitrates in cases where the government is accused of malpractice. The Supreme Court consists of two members selected by the president, two elected by the Federal Assembly, and one by the council of each island.[34]

Around 80 percent of the central government's annual budget is spent on the country’s complex electoral system which provides for a semi-autonomous government and president for each of the three islands and a rotating presidency for the over-arching Union government.[36] A referendum took place on May 16, 2009 to decide whether to cut down the government's unwieldy political bureaucracy. 52.7% of those eligible voted, and 93.8% of votes were cast in approval of the referendum. The referendum would cause each island's president to become a governor and the ministers to become councilors.[37]

As of 2008, Comoros and Mauritania are considered by US-based organization Freedom House as the only real “electoral democracies” of the Arab World.[38]

Also in 2008, the Comoros were ranked 14th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the Ibrahim Index of African Governance. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African governance, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.[39]

Military

The military resources of the Comoros consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. France maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a Foreign Legion Detachment (DLEM) on Mayotte.

Foreign relations

In November 1975, Comoros became the 143rd member of the United Nations. The new nation was defined as comprising the entire archipelago, although France continues to maintain control over the island of Mayotte as an overseas collectivity.[40] Comoros has repeatedly pressed its claim to the island before the United Nations General Assembly, which adopted a series of resolutions under the caption "Question of the Comorian Island of Mayotte", opining that Mayotte belongs to Comoros under the principle that the territorial integrity of colonial territories should be preserved upon independence. As a practical matter, however, these resolutions have little effect and there is no foreseeable likelihood that Mayotte will become de facto part of Comoros without its people's consent. More recently, the Assembly has maintained this item on its agenda but deferred it from year to year without taking action. Other bodies, including the UN General Assembly, the Organization of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, have similarly questioned French sovereignty over Mayotte.[5][41]

Comoros also is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, the European Development Fund, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Indian Ocean Commission, and the African Development Bank. On April 10, 2008 Comoros became the 179th nation to accept the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.[42]

Economy

Comoros is one of the world's poorest countries. Economic growth and poverty reduction are major priorities for the government. With a rate of 14.3%, unemployment is considered very high. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy, and 38.4% of the working population is employed in the primary sector. High population densities, as much as 1000 per square kilometer in the densest agricultural zones, for what is still a mostly rural, agricultural economy may lead to an environmental crisis in the near future, especially considering the high rate of population growth. The Comoros' real GDP growth was a low 1.9% in 2004 and real GDP per capita was continuing declining annually in 2004. These declines are explained by factors including declining investment, drops in consumption, rising inflation, and an increase in trade imbalance due in part to lowered cash crop prices, especially vanilla.[43]

Comoros has an inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. Comoros is the world's largest producer of ylang-ylang, and a large producer of vanilla.[44]

The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate.

The Comoros claims the Banc du Geyser and the Glorioso Islands as part of its exclusive economic zone.

Comoros is a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[45]

Demographics

A mosque in Moroni

With fewer than a million people, the Comoros is one of the least populous countries in the world, but is also one of the most densely populated, with an average of 275 inhabitants per square kilometre (710 /sq mi). In 2001, 34% of the population was considered urban, but that is expected to grow, since rural population growth is negative, while overall population growth is still relatively high.[46] Almost half of the population is younger than age 15.[47] Major urban centers include Moroni, Mutsamudu, Domoni, Fomboni, and Tsémbéhou. There are between 200,000 and 350,000 Comorians living in France.[48]

The islands of the Comoros share mostly African-Arab origins. Sunni Islam is the dominant religion, representing as much as 98% of the population. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a minority of the population of Mayotte, mostly immigrants from metropolitan France, are Roman Catholic.[49] Malagasy (Christian) and Indian (mostly Ismaili) minorities also exist, as well as minorities mostly descended from early French settlers. Chinese people are also present on Mayotte and parts of Grande Comore (especially Moroni). A small white minority of French with other European (i.e. Dutch, British and Portuguese) ancestry lives in Comoros. Most French left after independence in 1975.

The most common language is Comorian, or Shikomor, a Sabaki language related to Swahili, four different variants (Shingazidja, Shimwali, Shinzwani, and Shimaore) being spoken on each of the four islands. French and Arabic are also official languages, along with Comorian. Arabic is widely known as a second language, being the language of Quranic teaching, and French is the language of all other formal education. A Malagasy language, Shibushi, is spoken by approximately a third of the population of Maore.[50] About fifty-seven percent of the population is literate in the Latin alphabet while more than 90% are literate in the Arabic alphabet; total literacy is incorrectly estimated at 62.5%.[51] Comorian has no native script, but both Arabic and Latin scripts are used.

Health

There are 15 physicians per 100,000 persons.[52] Fertility rate was 4.7 per adult woman in 2004.[52] Life expectancy at birth is 67 for females and 62 for males.[52]

Media and culture

Comorian (Shikomori) is the most widely used language on the Comoros. It is a close relative of Swahili; like Swahili, it is a Bantu language with approximately 30% of its vocabulary derived from Arabic. It is one of the three official languages of the Comoros, next to French and Arabic. Each island has a slightly different dialect; that of Anjouan is called Shindzwani, that of Moheli Shimwali, that of Mayotte Shimaore, and that of Grande Comore Shingazidja. No official alphabet existed in 1992, but Arabic and Latin scripts were both used even though they are not native to the region.

There is a government owned national newspaper in Comoros, [3] Al-Watwan], published in Moroni; Kwezi is also published on Mayotte. Radio Comoros is the national radio service and Comoros National TV is the television service.

Education

Almost all of the educated populace of the Comoros have attended Quranic schools at some point in their lives, often before regular schooling. Here, boys and girls are taught about the Quran, and memorize it. Some parents specifically choose this early schooling to offset French schools children usually attend later. Since independence and the ejection of French teachers, the education system has been plagued by poor teacher training and poor results, though recent stability may allow for substantial improvements.[19] In 2000, 44.2 percent of children ages 5 to 14 years were attending school. There is a general lack of facilities, equipment, qualified teachers, textbooks and other resources. Salaries for teachers are often so far in arrears that many refuse to work.[53]

See also

  • Communications in Comoros
  • Flag of the Comoros
  • Heads of state of Comoros
  • List of notable Comorians
  • List of current Comorian islands presidents
  • Transportation in Comoros
  • Wezombeli

References

This article incorporates text from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which is in the public domain.

  1. ↑ "Comoros". State.gov. 2010-05-05. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5236.htm. Retrieved 2010-06-01. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Comoros". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=632&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=73&pr.y=7. Retrieved 2010-04-21. 
  3. ↑ Dominique and Michelle Frémy (2004).Quid 2005 Editions Robert Laffont. p.1175.
  4. ↑ "Comores Online.com – reference to the history of the name". http://www.comores-online.com/mwezinet/histoire/islandsofthemoon.htm. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 The first UN General Assembly Resolution regarding the matter, "Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte (PDF)," United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/31/4, (21 October 1976) states "the occupation by France of the Comorian island of Mayotte constitutes a flagrant encroachment on the national unity of the Comorian State, a Member of the United Nations," rejecting the French-administered referendums and condemning French presence in Mayotte.
  6. ↑ As defined by the Organization of African Unity, the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries, the Organisation of the Islamic Conference, and the United Nations General Assembly: the most recent UN General Assembly Resolution regarding the matter, "Question of the Comorian island of Mayotte," United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/49/18, (6 December 1994) states "the results of the referendum of 22 December 1974 were to be considered on a global basis and not island by island,...Reaffirms the sovereignty of the Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros over the island of Mayotte". Several resolutions expressing similar sentiments were passed between 1977 (31/4) and 1994 (49/18).
  7. ↑ "Subjects of UN Security Council Vetoes". Global Policy Forum. Archived from the original on March 17, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080317010910/http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/membship/veto/vetosubj.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
  8. ↑ "Article 33" (PDF). UN Treaty. http://untreaty.un.org/cod/repertory/art33/english/rep_supp5_vol2-art33_e.pdf. 
  9. ↑ Human Development Indices, Table 3: Human and income poverty, p. 35. Retrieved on 1 June 2009
  10. ↑ Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program (August 1994). Ralph K. Benesch. ed. A Country Study: Comoros. Washington, D.C.: US Department of the Army. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/kmtoc.html. Retrieved January 2007. 
  11. ↑ Thomas Spear (2000). "Early Swahili History Reconsidered". The International Journal of African Historical Studies (Boston University African Studies Center) 33 (2): 257–290. doi:10.2307/220649. http://jstor.org/stable/220649. 
  12. ↑ Thomas Spear (2000). "Early Swahili History Reconsidered". The International Journal of African Historical Studies 33 (2): 264–5. 
  13. ↑ Thomas Spear (1984). "The Shirazi in Swahili Traditions, Culture, and History". History in Africa (African Studies Association) 11: 291–305. doi:10.2307/3171638. http://jstor.org/stable/3171638. 
  14. ↑ Randall L. Pouwels (1984). "Oral Historiography and the Shirazi of the East African Coast". History in Africa (African Studies Association) 11: 237–267. doi:10.2307/3171636. http://jstor.org/stable/3171636. 
  15. ↑ Ottenheimer, Martin and Ottenheimer, Harriet (1994). Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. African Historical Dictionaries; No. 59. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 9780585070216. 
  16. ↑ Andre Bourde (May 1965). "The Comoro Islands: Problems of a Microcosm". The Journal of Modern African Studies 3 (1): 91–102. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00004924. 
  17. ↑ Barbara Dubins (September 1969). "The Comoro Islands: A Bibliographical Essay". African Studies Bulletin (African Studies Association) 12 (2): 131–137. doi:10.2307/523155. http://jstor.org/stable/523155. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Eliphas G. Mukonoweshuro (October 1990). "The Politics of Squalor and Dependency: Chronic Political Instability and Economic Collapse in the Comoro Islands". African Affairs 89 (357): 555–577. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Abdourahim Said Bakar (1988). "Small Island Systems: A Case Study of the Comoro Islands". Comparative Education 24 (2, Special Number (11): Education and Minority Groups): 181–191. doi:10.1080/0305006880240203. 
  20. ↑ Christopher S. Wren (1989-12-08). "Mercenary Holding Island Nation Seeks Deal" (LexisNexis). New York Times. http://web.lexis-nexis.com/universe/document?_m=d1b10aaadd3b21fa3166067951783216&_docnum=1&wchp=dGLbVtz-zSkVb&_md5=7aa625a85df57a180fc58f8270bb41a1. Retrieved 2007-01-03. 
  21. ↑ Matloff, Judith (10/6/95). "Mercenaries seek fun and profit in Africa". 87. Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. 
  22. ↑ Marlise Simons (1995-10-05). "1,000 French Troops Invade Comoros to Put Down Coup". New York Times. pp. Section A; Page 10; Column 3. 
  23. ↑ "French Mercenary Gives Up in Comoros Coup". Associated Press. New York Times. 1995-10-06. pp. Section A; Page 7; Column 1. 
  24. ↑ Kamal Eddine Saindou (1998-11-06, Friday, AM cycle). "Comoros president dies from heart attack". Associated Press. pp. International News. 
  25. ↑ Moyiga Nduru (1997-09-17). "COMORO ISLANDS: TENSION RISING IN THE INDIAN OCEAN ARCHIPELAGO". IPS-Inter Press Service/Global Information Network. 
  26. ↑ "COMOROS: COUP LEADER GIVES REASONS FOR COUP". BBC Monitoring Africa (Radio France Internationale). 1999-05-01. 
  27. ↑ Rodrique Ngowi (2000-08-03). "Breakaway island's ruler says no civilian rule until secession crisis resolved". Associated Press. 
  28. ↑ "Mbeki flies in to Comoros islands summit in bid to resolve political crisis". Agence France Presse. 2003-12-20. 
  29. ↑ "Comoros said "calm" after Azali Assoumani declared elected as federal president". BBC Monitoring Africa. 2002-05-10. 
  30. ↑ UN Integrated Regional Information Networks (2006-05-15). "Comoros; Ahmed Abdallah Sambi Set to Win Presidency by a Landslide". AllAfrica, Inc. Africa News. 
  31. ↑ "COMOROS: The legacy of a Big Man on a small island". IRIN. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=81898. 
  32. ↑ "Anti-French protests in Comoros". BBC News. March 27, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7316177.stm. Retrieved 2008-03-27. 
  33. ↑ Ottenheimer, Martin and Ottenheimer, Harriet (1994). Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. African Historical Dictionaries; No. 59. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 20, 72. ISBN 9780585070216. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 (Word document) FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF THE UNION OF COMOROS (English excerpts). Centre for Human Rights, University of Pretoria, South Africa. http://www.chr.up.ac.za/hr_docs/constitutions/docs/ComorosC%20(english%20summary)(rev).doc. 
  35. ↑ AFRICAN ELECTIONS DATABASE, Elections in the Comoros.
  36. ↑ "COMOROS: Reforming 'the coup-coup islands'". IRIN. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=83144. 
  37. ↑ "Comoros: Referendum Approves Downscaling of Government". AllAfrica Global Media. 2009-05-19. http://allafrica.com/stories/200905190777.html. Retrieved 2009-05-20. 
  38. ↑ "Freedom House Country Report 2008". Freedomhouse.org. 2004-05-10. http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2008. Retrieved 2010-06-01. 
  39. ↑ "Mo Ibrahim Foundation". Mo Ibrahim Foundation. http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org. Retrieved 2010-06-01. 
  40. ↑ Security Council S/PV. 1888 para 247 S/11967 [1] [2] Archived March 17, 2008 at the Wayback Machine.
  41. ↑ UN General Assembly, Forty-ninth session: Agenda item 36
  42. ↑ http://unfccc.int/files/kyoto_protocol/status_of_ratification/application/pdf/kp_ratification.pdf
  43. ↑ Office of the General Commissioner for Planning, Ministry of Planning and Regional Development (October 2005) (PDF). UNION OF THE COMOROS: POVERTY REDUCTION AND GROWTH STRATEGY PAPER (UPDATED INTERIM PAPER). http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRS1/Resources/Comoros_IPRSP(Oct2005).pdf. 
  44. ↑ Ottenheimer, Martin and Ottenheimer, Harriet (1994). Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands. African Historical Dictionaries; No. 59. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 3, 10. ISBN 9780585070216. 
  45. ↑ "OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa". http://www.ohada.com/index.php. Retrieved 2009-03-22 
  46. ↑ Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision and World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unup/ 11 January 2007
  47. ↑ "Comoros". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  48. ↑ "FACTBOX-Relations between France and Comoros". Reuters. March 27, 2008.
  49. ↑ CIA World Factbook: Comoros
  50. ↑ Ethnologue report for Comoros.
  51. ↑ UNESCO Institute for Statistics, country profile of Comoros; 2004.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 "WHO Country Offices in the WHO African Region - WHO | Regional Office for Africa". Afro.who.int. http://www.afro.who.int/home/countries/fact_sheets/comoros.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-01. 
  53. ↑ "Comoros". 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

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